The government has played a role in what we now recognize as various aspects of science policy since the early days of the United States. The Constitution established the American patent system. The Morill Land-Grant Acts led to the creation of many public research universities. Much of the modern system of research policy has been influenced by the technological needs of the military during the World Wars and the vision of Vannevar Bush. In World War 1, Bush noticed that there was little cooperation between the military and civilian scientists and wanted a federal agency to help coordinate research and defense needs. This led to the creation of the National Defense Research Committee in 1940, which was subsumed into the new Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) in 1941. OSRD was a civilian effort led by Bush, who reported directly to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and its research included weapons, radar and detection systems, medical treatments, and precursors to the Manhattan Project. In 1944, Roosevelt asked Bush to consider how the lessons and structure of OSRD could be applied to science in peacetime. Bush wrote a report, Science, The Endless Frontier, detailing how the federal government should support scientific research and education in America and proposes the creation of a “National Research Foundation”. After several years of debate, the National Science Foundation was created in 1950. NSF differs slightly from the proposal though, in that modern US science policy is decentralized among many agencies with different research and policy focuses.
Many of the federal agencies that people commonly associate with science in the United States, like NASA or the FDA or the National Science Foundation are in the executive branch. We can think of these as primarily serving four roles: research, regulatory, advisory, and informational. Many of the federal agencies that people commonly associate with science in the United States, like NASA or the FDA or the National Science Foundation are in the executive branch. We can think of these as primarily serving four roles: research, regulatory, advisory, and informational.
Research Agencies
The National Science Foundation funds research in all scientific disciplines in the United States, with the exception of medical research. This includes fields within the physical sciences, life sciences, social sciences, and engineering, as well as research related to education in these fields. NSF predominantly focuses on basic research. It’s budget of $8.3 billion is about 24% of federal support for basic research at American universities. NSF does support some applied research programs, but in relatively small ways when compared to the more specialized science agencies. For instance, biological research proposals that are close to clinical applications will usually be rejected by NSF, as such health-focused biomedical research is part of the NIH’s portfolio. Unlike many of the other federal scientific agencies discussed in this unit, NSF does not conduct its own scientific research and is entirely devoted to supporting researchers in other sectors.
As the outgrowth of Vannevar Bush’s original proposal, the nature of NSF and discussion about its mission is often reflective of broader trends in science policy and the relationship between science and society. For instance, NSF itself has a smaller scope than Bush envisioned for his proposed National Research Foundation, as NSF did not assume control of existing research at the NIH, in the Department of Defense, or in the Atomic Energy Commission (a precursor to the modern Department of Energy). Over time, NSF has also become more involved in applied research. In 1968, President Johnson signed a bill amending the National Science Foundation Act to explicitly include support for applied research. In 1981, support for engineering research was raised to its own directorate within NSF to better reinforce ties between basic and applied research. NSF also participates in important interdisciplinary and interagency programs, such as the National Nanotechnology Initiative and BRAIN Initiative. With the new Innovation Corps program (i-corps), NSF is also working to train science and engineering students and faculty to translate laboratory results into practical impacts.
The role of NSF in social science has been debated throughout the foundation’s existence. NSF did not initially support social science research, as Bush did not think these fields merited federal support. However, in 1955, NSF began its Social Science Research Program. The 1968 amendments to the National Science Foundation Act also included support for social science research. In 1991, the creation of the Directorate for Social, Behavioral, and Economic Sciences reflected the growing importance of social science at NSF. In the 2010s, NSF came under criticism by some conservative lawmakers for funding social science projects they viewed as not serving the “national interest” (Vox, piece by Congressman Lamar Smith).
Department of Defense is the oldest and largest government agency, with the head being just under the US President, the Secretary of Defense. The beginning of the department was in 1789, initially called the War Department, and was composed of the Army, Navy, Marines, and (in 1947) the Air Force. Today it is one of the largest research and development granting agencies. The Department of Defense has a large budget of approximately $1.1 trillion, roughly 15% of the national annual budget (2019, https://www.usaspending.gov). Of this about 10% is earmarked for research and development in various branches. This funding goes to basic as well as applied research supplies and personnel through grants and contracts for things from propulsion technology to i-corps initiatives across the country at various universities. Various agencies fund scientific research such as the Air Force ($10B), Navy ($4B), Marines ($3.3B), Army Research offices. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) began with the launch of Sputnik in 1957, and it’s mission is to invest and grow current technology. DARPA projects include: the Internet, automated voice recognition and language translation, and Global Positioning System creation. More basic research like the Minerva Research Initiative provides funding for universities working on social science policy related projects, such as “Autonomy, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Ethics, and Social Interactions”, as well as developing “Models and Methods for Understanding Covert Online Influence”. The strategy and initiatives of the DoD are overseen by the Research and Engineering Undersecretary under the Deputy Secretary of Defense
-
- The Department of Energy is relatively young and was created in 1977 as a response to the energy crisis earlier in the 70s. The new DOE consolidated many pre-existing agencies and institutions with functions relating to regulation of energy, as well as the National Laboratories. The original national labs grew out of the Manhattan Project. As World War II drew to a close, it was not clear if the labs would still exist since their founding purpose was over. The nuclear physics community proposed a plan for nuclear research that would use the specialized technical capabilities of the national laboratories to conduct experiments that would be infeasible for individual universities. The national labs have grown over time, from the four involved in the Manhattan Project to 17 today. The laboratories have complementary, but distinct missions and many extend into fields beyond the original nuclear science and engineering involved in the atomic bomb. The national labs also maintain user facilities for other researchers to take advantage of, such as the Advanced Photon Source, in their own experiments. There is both classified and non-classified research in the national labs, and increasingly there are public-private partnerships between the labs and corporate sponsors.
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) were first created as a single one-room laboratory in the Marine Hospital Service (MHS) to investigate infectious diseases and other issues regarding public health. Initially skeptical of how useful scientific research would be, the government decided to fund scientific agencies by allocating federal money on a yearly basis. In 1930, after WWI, Congress enacted the Ransdell Act, giving the NIH its name and funding to research into basic biology and medical problems; a switch in how the government viewed the importance of scientific research. Since then, the NIH has become the primary government agency for biomedical and public health research, as well as a strong backbone for basic research. This is shown by Congress funding of NIH: from $35,000 in 1930 to $41.6B in FY2020. NIH’s main mission is aimed at advancing the fundamental knowledge of biology, and applying that understanding to enhance health and specific scientific needs. Thus, the NIH allocates its resources to fund both basic and applied research. The NIH is composed of 27 Institutes, one of the most important ones being the National Cancer Institute, the main federal agency for cancer research and training. The NCI was established in 1937, after Congress passed the National Cancer Act.
Additionally, the NIH Office of the Director is in charge of the policies governing NIH and does so through two main offices: the Office of Science Policy (OSP) and the Office of Legislative Policy and Analysis (OLPA).
- The OSP advises the NIH Director on issues regarding the agency, biomedical research, and the public. The OSP works on issues regarding data sharing, clinical research participant protections, biosafety and biosecurity, and genetic testing among others, together with all Institutes as well as the Federal government, non-government agencies, and the public.
- The OLPA works to ensure the coordination between NIH and Congress, providing updated information about biomedical research, regulating legislative issues that could impact NIH, preparing Congressional testimony by the NIH Director or other senior NIH officials, and monitoring and informing the NIH community of any new and important legislation.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is a government agency created in 1958 and is responsible for science and technology issues regarding air and space. The US Congress passed legislation to fund this new agency in response to the Soviet Union launching their first satellite: Sputnik I. NASA started with three main research laboratories, focused on aeronautical research, such as aerodynamics, and wind shear, and conducted major human spaceflight programs. Additionally, NASA focuses part of its research to the science of space, expanding the human understanding of the universe, exploring the solar system, and investigating previous or possible biological life on other planets. NASA research has also expanded to climate and climate change, with more than 17 space missions to collect data, including solar and atmospheric temperature data. NASA current priorities also include extending the operation of the Space Station, investing in exploration technology development, and allocating funding to research climate change and explore new green, cleaner and more efficient air transportation.
The USDA has many initiatives under it, with a budget of approximately 20 billion dollars, out of a $150 billion total budget. The two biggest of these are the NIFA and ARS.
The National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) works to advance agricultural science. It is a new initiative housed under the USDA created with the Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008 (the 2008 Farm Bill)
The Agricultural Research Service (ARS) is another agricultural research agency. ARS is one of four agencies in USDA’s Research, Education and Economics (REE) mission area. The others are National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA), Economic Research Service (ERS), and National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS). ARS helps connect civilians with the science behind research through published work as well as staffing extension centers throughout the US.
Regulatory Agencies
The Food and Drug Administration’s mission is to regulate food and drugs in order to protect American consumers. This regulatory function began with the Pure Food and Drugs Act in 1906. They fund many areas of research including drugs, medical devices, toxicology, veterinary medicine, pregnancy, minority issues, and food. The Office of the Chief Scientist coordinates the FDA’s public health mission. The budget for the FDA is about $5.7 billion, paying 17,599 full time equivalents.
The Environmental Protection Agency regulates through the guidance of many research centers including the: Office of Science Advisor, Policy, and Engagement (OSAPE), Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling (CEMM), Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure (CCTE), Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment (CPHEA), and Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response (CESER). There are also ten regional laboratories and six research programs (Air and Energy Research Program, Chemical Safety for Sustainability Research Program, Health and Environmental Risk Assessment Program, Homeland Security Research Program, Safe and Sustainable Water Resources Research Program, Sustainable and Healthy Communities Research Program). The budget of the EPA is currently about $9 billion.
An agency in the Department of Labor, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration regulates workplace environments to protect employee health. OSHA was created by the Occupational Safety and Health Act, which was signed by President Richard Nixon in 1970. Issues that fall under OSHA’s jurisdiction include chemical safety, hazard communication (such as Safety Data Sheets for chemicals), and risk training. OSHA may develop new standards on its own or in response to requests from the Secretary of Health and Human Services or other federal agencies, as well as petitions from state and local governments, employer or labor representatives, or other interested parties. The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) conducts research on workplace safety and health and provides technical assistance to OSHA in standard development.
The Federal Communications Commission is an independent U.S. government agency overseen by Congress, which regulates interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite and cable in all 50 states, the District of Columbia and U.S. territories. The FCC is the United States’ primary authority for communications law, regulation and technological innovation. The agency is directed by five commissioners who are appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the U.S. Senate. The FCC’s rules and regulations are in Title 47 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), which are published and maintained by the Government Printing Office. Advisory committees provide federal departments and agencies with access to expertise and advice on a broad range of issues affecting policies and programs. Most advisory committees at the FCC are established under the Federal Advisory Committee Act (FACA).
Advisory Offices
Congress established the Office of Science and Technology Policy in 1976 with a broad mandate to advise the President and others within the Executive Office of the President on the effects of science and technology on domestic and international affairs. The primary function of the to Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) is to provide the President and others within the Executive Office of the President with advice on the scientific, engineering, and technological aspects of the economy, national security, homeland security, health, foreign relations, the environment, and the technological recovery and use of resources, among other topics. Strategic goals and objectives of OSTP include: (1) Ensure that Federal investments in science and technology are making the greatest possible contribution to economic prosperity, public health, environmental quality, and national security; (2) Energize and nurture the processes by which government programs in science and technology are resourced, evaluated, and coordinated; (3) Sustain the core professional and scientific relationships with government officials, academics, and industry representatives that are required to understand the depth and breadth of the Nation’s scientific and technical enterprise, evaluate scientific advances, and identify potential policy proposals; and (4) Generate a core workforce of world-class expertise capable of providing policy-relevant advice, analysis, and judgment for the President and his senior staff regarding the scientific and technical aspects of the major policies, plans, and programs of the Federal government.
Dr. Kelvin K. Droegemeier serves as President Donald J. Trump’s science advisor and leads OSTP in its coordination of science and technology initiatives across the Federal Government.
The National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) was established by Executive Order on November 23, 1993. The NSTC is the principal means within the Executive Branch to coordinate science and technology (S&T) policy across the diverse entities that make up the Federal research and development enterprise. The NSTC establishes clear national goals for science and technology policy and investment, as well as prepares research and development strategies that are coordinated across Federal agencies aimed at accomplishing multiple national goals. The work of NSTC is organized under five primary committees: Environment, Natural Resources and Sustainability; Homeland and National Security; Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Education; Science; and Technology. These committees focus on different aspects of science and technology and working to coordinate across the federal government.
Informational Agencies
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration‘s mission is “to understand and predict changes in climate, weather, oceans, and coasts, to share that knowledge and information with others, and to conserve and manage coastal and marine ecosystems and resources.” This scientific agency pursues this mission as a sub-agency of the United States Department of Commerce. One of the more recognizable services provided by NOAA is the National Weather Service, a global network of weather observation stations and analysts providing real-time weather forecasts to help protect from and predict weather related risks to public and industry safety. NOAA’s annual budget tends to be around 5.5 billion dollars. With this funding, NOAA reinvests in several forms of research and weather related infrastructure related to climate; weather and air chemistry; ocean, coastal and Great Lakes; and multi-disciplinary technologies.
US Geological Survey was created in 1879, and is the sole science agency of the Department of the Interior. Their mission:
“The USGS serves the Nation by providing reliable scientific information to describe and understand the Earth; minimize loss of life and property from natural disasters; manage water, biological, energy, and mineral resources; and enhance and protect our quality of life.”
The director has a Science Advisor and oversees regions and natural resource departments. The agency operates on a nearly 1 billion dollar budget.
The National Institutes of Standards and Technology was founded in 1901 (as the National Bureau of Standards) and is part of the Department of Commerce. It was created by Congress to improve infrastructure related to measurement in the United States, which lagged behind other industrialized countries and limited American economic competitiveness. The mission of NIST is to create measurement standards and improve measurement science and technology. While NIST does not create or enforce regulation, many other bodies will use NIST standards and techniques to set how measurements or limits should be met under their own regulation. NIST can also provide standard reference materials (SRMs) for companies and laboratories to calibrate their equipment. For example, NIST has SRMs of several food products, which companies use to calibrate methods for calculating the nutritional data of food products. NIST has research capabilities in a variety of fields, categorized into 6 mission areas:
1. Advanced communications, networks, and scientific data systems
2. Advanced manufacturing and material measurements
3. Cybersecurity and privacy
4. Fundamental measurement, quantum science and measurement dissemination
5. Health and biological systems measurement
6. Physical infrastructure and resilience
The Center for Disease Control and Prevention is the leading public health agency whose mission is to protect Americans from any health, safety, and security threats. The CDC was first established to fight malaria and prevent its spread across the country. Since then, the CDC has broadened its main focus and to include chronic diseases, disabilities and injury prevention among others. The agency also focuses on emerging diseases, such as Zika and SARS as well as preventing and fighting bioterrorism.